Women’s Rights in Pre-Vedic and Vedic Times
From 7000-3000BC Terracotta figurines have been found of Mother Goddesses which point to a society where mother was the most important figure. In a primitive social structure, there were no rigid marriage laws, inheritance devolved from the mother line. This resulted in the supernatural being in the image of the Mother.
Early Indus Valley (2400-1900BC) also points to a continuous preoccupation with Mother Goddess worship indicating a high degree of reverence for women.
Women are recorded in the Rig Veda (1500-1000BC) as endowed with a high status and exercising a considerable independence.
In the marriage hymns of the Rig Veda, the wife is recognised as a true partner in all activities including the most privileged- religious sacrifices. The term Dampati is used as a couple being joint owners of all property. A widow could remarry and spinster daughter could inherit property.
Early Indus Valley (2400-1900BC) also points to a continuous preoccupation with Mother Goddess worship indicating a high degree of reverence for women.
Women are recorded in the Rig Veda (1500-1000BC) as endowed with a high status and exercising a considerable independence.
In the marriage hymns of the Rig Veda, the wife is recognised as a true partner in all activities including the most privileged- religious sacrifices. The term Dampati is used as a couple being joint owners of all property. A widow could remarry and spinster daughter could inherit property.
According to one view women during the Vedic period occupied an exalted position and they enjoyed a fair amount of personal freedom and equal rights with men. But another view holds that birth of a girl was not a welcome event. However she did not suffer due to that reason. She was given all the privileges entitled to a son. No discrimination was made on the basis of education. At least twenty women composed Rig Vedic Hymns. Gargi and Maitreyi were the leading philosophers of the time.
Women, in the Vedic era, so excelled in the sphere of education that even the deity of learning was conceived of as a female popularly known as ‘Saraswati’. Girls were allowed to enter into the Gurukulas along with boys. There are also instances of female Rishis, such as Ghosa, Kakhivati Surya Savitri, Indrani, Shradha Kamayani, Yami Shachi, Poulomi, Urvashi etc. Marriage in the Vedic Period was considered a social and religious duty and united the couple on an equal footing.
The couple prayed that their love and friendship should not break down. The Vedic literature also contained that the Kshatriya girls were allowed to settle marriages in accordance with their own wishes. This was done through the custom of ‘Swayavara’ or self choice. This is an indicator of their dignified status in the Vedic society.
Women, in the Vedic era, so excelled in the sphere of education that even the deity of learning was conceived of as a female popularly known as ‘Saraswati’. Girls were allowed to enter into the Gurukulas along with boys. There are also instances of female Rishis, such as Ghosa, Kakhivati Surya Savitri, Indrani, Shradha Kamayani, Yami Shachi, Poulomi, Urvashi etc. Marriage in the Vedic Period was considered a social and religious duty and united the couple on an equal footing.
The couple prayed that their love and friendship should not break down. The Vedic literature also contained that the Kshatriya girls were allowed to settle marriages in accordance with their own wishes. This was done through the custom of ‘Swayavara’ or self choice. This is an indicator of their dignified status in the Vedic society.
The concept of ‘dan’ or gift was prevalent in the Vedic period. But the practice of dowry was unknown. The wife held an honorable position in the household. She enjoyed freedom of movement and was not confined to the house only. In religious performances, the wife occupied a prominent position. Even the performance of certain ceremonies was invalid without the wife.’ Monogamy was the form of marriage during the Vedic days. The term ‘Dampati’ was frequently used in the Vedic texts. The term meant “two joint owners of the household.”
The Vedic people were quite ignorant of the possibility of marital bonds ever being terminated or ended. The concept of widow remarriage was in vogue and the brother of the dead husband was taking care of the widowed sister-in-law in the Vedic days. The widow did not have the right to inherit her deceased husband’s property in the Vedic age. However, the Rig Veda recognized the right of a spinster to inherit her father’s property.
The status of women gradually declined during the post-Vedic period. Most probably, the woman’s status deteriorated due to the introduction of non-Aryan wife. The non-Aryan wives did not have any knowledge of Vedic rituals. They could not associate themselves with their Aryan husbands in various religious performances. At a later stage, the Aryan wives, too, lost many privileges which they enjoyed in the earlier period.
In course of time, the girls were denied of formal education. The marriageable age of girls came down to 8 or 10 years. Thus the incidence of pre-puberty marriages increased and child-wives without education became the order of the day.
The amount of gift in the marriage was nominal. Therefore, it did not create any problem in the settlement of marriage. There are conflicting opinions about the wife’s position in the household. Whereas Manu held that “married women must be honored and adorned by their father, brothers, husbands and brother’s-in-law who designed their own welfare,” Jajnavalklya declared that woman should follow the words of their husbands. The Mahabharata prescribed that “by virtue of her obedience and devotion to her husband wife would be able to achieve paradise.”
The Ramayana outlined that “the husband is indeed the deity for the wife. Thus the Ramayana emphasized a wife’s devotion to her husband. It can be briefly stated that during the post Vedic Period “marriage established the supremacy of the husband over the wife” Another indicator of the lower status of women was the practice of monogamy for the wife while the husband was free to have several wives. The husband could discard his wife on flimsy grounds. Manu declared that a barren wife could be superseded in the eighth year, a wife whose children died could be superseded in the tenth year.
A wife who bore only daughters could be superseded in the eleventh year and a wife who spoke harshly could be superseded at any moment. The position of a widow was not miserable during the post-Vedic Period, but widow remarriage was not usually favored.
The Vedic people were quite ignorant of the possibility of marital bonds ever being terminated or ended. The concept of widow remarriage was in vogue and the brother of the dead husband was taking care of the widowed sister-in-law in the Vedic days. The widow did not have the right to inherit her deceased husband’s property in the Vedic age. However, the Rig Veda recognized the right of a spinster to inherit her father’s property.
The status of women gradually declined during the post-Vedic period. Most probably, the woman’s status deteriorated due to the introduction of non-Aryan wife. The non-Aryan wives did not have any knowledge of Vedic rituals. They could not associate themselves with their Aryan husbands in various religious performances. At a later stage, the Aryan wives, too, lost many privileges which they enjoyed in the earlier period.
In course of time, the girls were denied of formal education. The marriageable age of girls came down to 8 or 10 years. Thus the incidence of pre-puberty marriages increased and child-wives without education became the order of the day.
The amount of gift in the marriage was nominal. Therefore, it did not create any problem in the settlement of marriage. There are conflicting opinions about the wife’s position in the household. Whereas Manu held that “married women must be honored and adorned by their father, brothers, husbands and brother’s-in-law who designed their own welfare,” Jajnavalklya declared that woman should follow the words of their husbands. The Mahabharata prescribed that “by virtue of her obedience and devotion to her husband wife would be able to achieve paradise.”
The Ramayana outlined that “the husband is indeed the deity for the wife. Thus the Ramayana emphasized a wife’s devotion to her husband. It can be briefly stated that during the post Vedic Period “marriage established the supremacy of the husband over the wife” Another indicator of the lower status of women was the practice of monogamy for the wife while the husband was free to have several wives. The husband could discard his wife on flimsy grounds. Manu declared that a barren wife could be superseded in the eighth year, a wife whose children died could be superseded in the tenth year.
A wife who bore only daughters could be superseded in the eleventh year and a wife who spoke harshly could be superseded at any moment. The position of a widow was not miserable during the post-Vedic Period, but widow remarriage was not usually favored.
The status of Hindu women in India has been fluctuating. It has gone through several changes during various historical stages. Historically speaking, women in India have passed through two phases of their life – the period of subjugation and the period of liberation. At times she has been suppressed and oppressed and at times she is regarded as the deity of the home. From the Vedic age till today, her status and position has been changing with the passing of time.
The Rig-Vedic society was a free society. The Aryans evidently preferred male child to female child. However, females were as free as their male counterparts. Education was equally open for boys and girls. Girls studied the Veda and fine arts. Women never observed purdha in the Vedic period. They enjoyed freedom in selecting their mates. But divorce was not permissible to them. In the family, they enjoyed complete freedom and were treated as Ardhanginis.
In domestic life women were considered to be supreme and enjoyed freedom. Home was the place of production. Spinning and weaving of clothes was done at home. Women helped their husbands in agricultural pursuits also. Husband used to consult his wife on financial matters.
Unmarried daughters had share in their fathers’ property. Daughter had full legal rights in the property of her father in the absence of any son. Mother’s property, after her death, was equally divided among sons and unmarried daughters. However, married women had no share in father’s property. As a wife, a woman had no direct share in her husband’s property. A widowed mother had some rights.
The woman was regarded as having an equally important share in the social and religious life because a man without woman was considered as an inadequate person. She regularly participated in religious ceremonies with her husband. There were many scholars who composed hymns of Rig Veda. Lopamudra, Gargi and Maitreye were the pioneers among them. Lopamudra, the wife of Agasti rishi, composed two verses of Rig Veda.
It may be concluded that during vedic period the status of women was not unequal to that of men. Women got the same education as men and participated in the philosophical debates.
Prabhu has remarked,
“This shows that men and women were regarded as having equally important status in the social life of the early period’.
Women had equal rights in social and religious fields but had limited rights in economic field.
Status of Women in the Epics: Epic age, in the history of female freedom, may be regarded as a golden age. Women had been accorded an honorable status in the society. Most of the female characters of Ramayana and Mahabharata were well educated.
The Ramayana illustrates the Hindu ideal women of India. In Mahabharata we find instances where women gave counsel and advice to men on social and religious issues. Women had an effective role in social and political life of the then society.
A general survey of the Puranas reveals that the position of women declined in the corresponding age.
Status of Women in the Smritis: While speaking about woman and her relation to man, Manu says “Women must always be honoured and respected by the father, brother, husband and brother-in-law who desire their own welfare, and where women are honoured, there the very Gods are pleased, but where they are not honoured, no sacred rite even could yield rewards”.
Manu observes that the family, in which women suffer, is bound to be ruined, while the family in which women are happy is bound to prosper. He further enjoins that every person is to maintain peace with the female members of the household. He also advises every householder to treat his daughter as the highest object of tenderness and honour mother as the most venerable person in the world.
On the other hand we find a number of provisions in the Manu Smriti, which certainly go against her interests.
Women are deprived of the Upanayana ceremony and thereby of education. Manu relegates her to an entirely subservient position. He preaches self-negation as the highest ideal of a wife. She is asked to serve and worship her husband even if he is not a person of all virtue and character. Since service and worship of the husband are the primary duties of a wife, by so performing she can hope to attain heaven.
Manu deprives women of her economic rights also. He says, “A wife, a son and a Slave, these three are declared to have no property, the wealth which they earn is for him to whom they belong”.
It appears that Manu had a very poor opinion about women. According to him women should be guarded against her evil inclinations. Otherwise she will bring sorrow to both the families. He also observes that if a woman is chaste, it is because she has not found a proper man, place and opportunity. He, therefore, calls her a ‘Pramada a temptress. So, he wants woman to be under the surveillance of father in her childhood, her husband in her youth and her sons after the death of her husband. He declares in unequivocal terms that no woman deserves independence.
There are two schools of thought regarding the status of women in ancient India. One school has described women as the ‘equals of men’, while the other school holds that women were held not only in disrespect but even in positive hatred.
Status of Women in the Buddhist Period: Many evil social practices, like the practice of prepuberty marriages, denial of right of women to education and also to mate selection etc were imposed on women during the periods of Brahmans and Puranas.
In the Buddhist period, the position of women improved to some extent. In the religious field, women came to occupy a distinctly superior place. They had their own Sangha called Bhikshuni ‘Sangha’, which provided avenues of cultural activities and social services. They got ample opportunities in public life. However, their economic status remained unchanged.
Status of Women in Medieval Period: According to ancient Hindu texts and tradition, until about 500 B.C. women in India enjoyed considerable freedom. But during the next thousand years, women’s position gradually deteriorated. Educational and religious parity was denied to them and widow remarriage was forbidden.
In fact, the status of women started degenerating in the post-Vedic age because of the conception of purity and pollution and restrictions of inter-caste marriages. Child marriage had started in the Smriti age. During this period, a woman’s husband was regarded as God. During the middle ages, the position of women in Hindu society further degenerated. A number of problems arose for Hindu women in the Mughal period.
The first Muslim invasion took place in India in the eighth century. During this period the Hindu society was engaged in evolving, under the leadership of Sankaracharya, a technique to face the expanding Buddhism. Sankaracharya re- emphasised the supremacy of Vedas to counter the spread of Buddhism, and the Vedas had given a status of equality to women. India experienced a second Muslim invasion in the eleventh century when Mohammad Ghazni conquered India. From this period till the middle of the eighteenth century, when the British rule was established in the country the breakdown of social institutions, the vast migration of people and the economic depression in the country contributed to a general decline of social life, particularly among women.
The ‘Purdah’ system was followed which resulted in seclusion of women. Education of women in whatever form came to be stopped. Child marriage was started. During this period the inhuman practice of ‘Sati Pratha was in vogue. Purdah Pratha, Sati Pratha, child marriage, girl killing, polygamy etc. were the main social evils of this period.
However, during the fifteenth century, the situation underwent some change. The Bhakti movement organised by Ramanujacharya during this period introduced new trends in the social and religious life of Indian women. The saints like Chaitanya, Nanak, Kabir, Meera, Ramdas and Tulsi stood for the right of women to religious worship. Hence, this movement, atleast, provided religious freedom to women.
As a result of this freedom, they secured certain social freedom also. The saints encouraged women to read religious books and to educate themselves. Although the Bhakti movement gave a new life to women, this movement did not bring any substantial change in economic status of women. Hence, women continued to hold low status in the society.